Background: Disability resulting from stroke and traumatic brain injury represent the main causes of long-term complications in adults. There are no universally accepted treatments available to treat these conditions and the financial, personal, familial and social cost of these disabilities cannot be underestimated. Preliminary data from different laboratories have shown that it is possible to modulate plastic processes in the lesioned brain by pharmacological, brain stimulation and somatosensory stimulation techniques. The purpose of this project is to identify mechanisms of stroke motor disability and characterize the most promising techniques to improve cortical plasticity in these patients to enhance functional recovery. Findings this year: We reviewed strategies using TMS and tDCS to influence regional neural activity underlying the stimulation location and also distant interconnected network activity throughout the brain. Most stroke rehabilitation studies have been performed in high-income countries. The aim of one study was to identify the main barriers for patient inclusion in a research protocol performed in Brazil. We evaluated reasons for exclusion of patients in a pilot, randomized, double-blinded clinical trial of stroke rehabilitation. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed and report that only 5.6% of 571 screened patients were included. Recurrent stroke was responsible for exclusion of 45.4% of potentially eligible patients We concluded that recurrent stroke represented a big barrier to enroll patients in the protocol. External validity of rehabilitation trials will benefit from definition of study criteria according to regional characteristics of patients, including rates of recurrent stroke. In one study we report changes in interhemispheric inhibition targeting the ipsilesional primary motor cortex (M1) during nonparetic arm force. Healthy age-matched controls had significantly greater increases in inhibition from their active to resting M1 than patients with stroke from their active contralesional to resting ipsilesional M1 in the same scenario. Patients with greater increases in contralesional to ipsilesional inhibition were better performers on the 9-hole peg test of paretic arm function. Our findings reveal that producing force with the nonparetic arm does not necessarily overinhibit the paretic arm. Though our study is limited in generalizability by the small sample size, we found that greater active contralesional to resting ipsilesional M1 inhibition was related with better recovery in this subset of patients with chronic post stroke. In one study on brain-computer interface, in collaboration with a group in Germany, we found a significant group time interaction in upper limb (combined hand and modified arm) Fugl-Meyer assessment (cFMA) motor scores. cFMA scores improved more in the experimental than in the control group, presenting a significant improvement of cFMA scores (3.41 0.563-point difference, p = 0.018) reflecting a clinically meaningful change from no activity to some in paretic muscles. cFMA improvements in the experimental group correlated with changes in fMRI laterality index and with paretic hand electromyography activity. Placebo-expectancy scores were comparable for both groups. We concluded that the addition of BMI training to behaviorally oriented physiotherapy can be used to induce functional improvements in motor function in chronic stroke patients without residual finger movements and may open a new door in stroke neurorehabilitation.